Noun explanation

Graphite (carbon) is currently the most widely used carbon material as the anode material in lithium-ion batteries. Due to its excellent conductivity, layered structure, and stability, it serves as a carrier for the embedding and desorption of lithium ions during the charging and discharging process of the battery. The performance of graphite directly affects the battery’s capacity, cycle life, rate performance, and safety.
Application Fields:
Electric vehicle power battery (power graphite)
Energy storage systems (emphasizing cost and lifespan)
Consumer electronics (requiring energy density and volume)
Hybrid anodes (such as new schemes like graphite + silicon, graphite + tin, etc.)

Grid Integration refers to the entire process of effectively integrating battery energy storage systems (BESS), renewable energy sources (such as wind and solar power), or distributed resources like electric vehicles, and coordinating their operation with the power system (grid). The goal is to enhance the flexibility, stability, and the ability to absorb renewable energy of the system.
The grid integration functions of the energy storage system:
Frequency Regulation: Provides a second-level response to stabilize frequency
Voltage Support: Enhances local voltage stability through reactive power regulation
Peak Shaving: Reduces peak load and delays the investment in expansion of transmission and distribution
Increasing the penetration rate of renewable energy: Smooths fluctuations, mitigates waste of wind and solar energy
Black Start: Starts the power grid under the condition of no external power after a major power outage

The Heat Transfer Coefficient is a physical quantity that measures the rate of heat transfer per unit area per unit time, indicating the ability of heat to transfer from one medium to another. Its unit is W/(m²·K), which means the number of watts transferred per square meter of area per degree Celsius increase or decrease.
In the battery system (especially in the Battery Thermal Management System BTMS), the thermal conductivity coefficient is used to evaluate:
The heat exchange efficiency between the battery and the cooling plate, the heat exchange rate between the liquid cooling/air cooling medium and the battery, and the thermal conductivity between material interfaces (such as thermal interface materials TIM).

Battery pack design determines the operational performance, cycle life, and commercial viability of portable electronic products. Custom lithium-ion battery applications have expanded across electric vehicles, renewable energy systems, and portable electronics, driven by their superior energy density characteristics compared to traditional chemistries.

Power specifications for custom battery pack development require three fundamental parameters: total energy storage capacity, current delivery capability, and discharge duration before recharge becomes necessary. Our engineering experience demonstrates that these basic requirements represent only the initial design considerations. Battery safety systems must address the inherent instability of lithium-ion chemistry, which can result in thermal runaway, gas venting, or cell rupture under fault conditions.

This technical guide examines the critical design elements required for safe and efficient custom battery pack development. Capacity calculations follow basic electrical principles—a 50-watt load operating for 4 hours requires a 200 watt-hour battery minimum, though actual sizing must account for discharge characteristics and temperature effects. Protection circuit design, charging algorithms, and thermal management systems all influence the final battery pack performance and safety profile.

The objective for any design is to meet the electrical requirements while maintaining safety standards and cost targets that allow successful product commercialization.

Core Components of Battery Pack Design

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Battery pack design consists of three fundamental building blocks that determine electrical performance, operational reliability, and safety characteristics. Since 1965, battery manufacturers have developed these components to meet specific voltage, capacity, and environmental requirements across diverse applications.

Cell Types: Cylindrical, Prismatic, Pouch

Cell selection forms the foundation of custom lithium ion battery pack development. Each cell format exhibits distinct performance characteristics and manufacturing considerations:

Cylindrical cells utilize spirally wound electrodes and separators enclosed in steel or aluminum cans. The cylindrical geometry provides uniform mechanical stress distribution and efficient heat dissipation through radial cooling paths. Standard sizes include 18650 (18mm diameter, 65mm height), 21700, and 4680 formats with capacities ranging from 1.5Ah to 50Ah. The sealed metal housing offers superior mechanical protection against external impacts and internal pressure buildup.

Prismatic cells feature rectangular electrode stacks housed in welded aluminum or steel casings. These cells emerged in the early 1990s to maximize volumetric efficiency with typical dimensions of 100 x 200 x 10mm and capacities between 10-30Ah. The flat form factor achieves higher space utilization compared to cylindrical cells, however power density remains lower due to limited cooling surface area. Electric vehicle applications increasingly utilize prismatic cells where space constraints drive design decisions.

Pouch cells employ flexible metallized laminate pouches containing electrode stacks without rigid casings. This construction achieves 90-95% packaging efficiency but requires mechanical support structures and accommodation for 8-10% swelling after 500 charge cycles. The flexible format enables custom shapes for wearable devices and space-constrained applications.

Series and Parallel Cell Configurations

Cell arrangement directly determines pack voltage, capacity, and current delivery capability in custom battery designs. Battery pack configurations employ two basic connection methods:

Series connections multiply voltage while capacity remains constant. Connecting the negative terminal of one cell to the positive terminal of the next cell adds voltages together. Four 3.6V lithium-ion cells connected in series produce 14.4V nominal output.

Parallel connections increase capacity while voltage stays unchanged. All positive terminals connect together and all negative terminals connect together, multiplying amp-hour ratings by the number of parallel cells.

Most battery packs combine series and parallel arrangements to achieve target specifications. Industry notation describes configurations as “XsYp” where X represents cells in series and Y indicates parallel groups. Laptop batteries commonly use 4s2p configurations to deliver 14.4V with doubled capacity.

Battery Management System Functions

Battery management systems monitor and control pack operation to ensure safe performance within design parameters. A properly designed BMS performs multiple critical functions:

Cell monitoring tracks individual voltages, temperatures, and current flow to detect imbalances or fault conditions before they become dangerous.

Protection circuits prevent overcharge, over-discharge, and overcurrent conditions that can damage cells or create safety hazards.

Cell balancing equalizes charge levels across all cells to maximize pack capacity and prevent premature aging of weaker cells.

State estimation calculates remaining capacity (SOC) and overall health (SOH) to inform users and connected systems.

BMS complexity varies based on application requirements. Consumer electronics typically require basic protection functions, while electric vehicle systems incorporate hundreds of sensor inputs and sophisticated control algorithms. Medical and aerospace applications demand the highest reliability standards with redundant monitoring and fail-safe operation modes.

The BMS serves as the central intelligence system that transforms individual cells into a safe, reliable power source suitable for demanding applications.

Performance Optimization and Technical Trade-offs

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Battery pack performance optimization requires evaluating competing design parameters to meet specific application requirements. The challenge lies in understanding how each design decision affects overall system performance and cost.

Energy Density vs Power Delivery Characteristics

Battery design fundamentally involves choosing between energy storage capacity and power delivery capability. Energy density (Wh/kg or Wh/L) defines the total energy stored per unit mass or volume, while power density (W/kg or W/L) determines the maximum current delivery rate.

These parameters operate inversely—optimizing for one typically reduces the other. Design priorities must align with application requirements:

• Energy-optimized designsutilize thicker electrodes with lower porosity and larger particle sizes to maximize energy storage capacity
• Power-optimized designsemploy thinner electrodes with higher porosity and smaller particle sizes to minimize internal resistance and enable rapid discharge

Custom lithium ion battery packs require electrode-level modifications to achieve target performance. Energy-dense batteries minimize conductive additives to maximize active material content, whereas high-power variants incorporate additional carbon black or graphite to reduce impedance.

Thermal Management System Selection

Operating temperature directly affects both performance and safety. Lithium-ion cells function safely between -20°C and 60°C, with charging limited to 0°C to 45°C to prevent lithium plating. Temperature management systems fall into two categories:

Passive cooling systems rely on natural heat transfer without external power consumption:

• Heat sink assemblies with enhanced surface area
• Heat pipes containing phase-change working fluids
• Phase change materials that absorb thermal energy during state transitions

Active cooling systems provide precise temperature control at the expense of additional power consumption:

• Forced convection systems for moderate thermal loads
• Liquid cooling plates for high-power applications requiring precise temperature control
• Immersion cooling for extreme thermal management requirements

Thermal simulation modeling allows identification of temperature gradients and hotspots during the design phase, enabling optimization of cooling system placement and capacity before prototype development.

Charge Control Strategies for Cycle Life Extension

Charging parameters significantly influence battery service life. Standard lithium-ion cells charge to 4.20V per cell, typically achieving 300-500 cycles before reaching 80% of initial capacity. Charge voltage reduction extends cycle life substantially—limiting charge voltage to 4.10V per cell increases cycle life to 600-1,000 cycles, while 4.0V per cell operation can achieve 1,200-2,000 cycles.

State of charge management provides additional cycle life benefits. Operating batteries within a 20-80% charge range significantly extends service life compared to full 0-100% cycling. Applications requiring maximum longevity benefit from charge-limiting circuits within the battery management system that prevent voltage excursions beyond predetermined safe operating limits.

Battery Safety Systems and Protection Circuits

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Lithium-ion chemistries require comprehensive safety systems due to their potential for thermal runaway, gas venting, and fire hazards under fault conditions. Safety protection from overheating is a critical component of every lithium battery pack. Our technical experience demonstrates that implementing robust protection circuitry directly affects both product liability and market acceptance.

Protection Circuit Modules for Voltage Control

The protection circuits are contained in what is commonly referred to as the protection circuit module (PCM). Overcharge protection activates when individual cell voltage exceeds 4.30V during charging, preventing electrolyte decomposition and crystal structure damage that can lead to toxic gas emissions or thermal events. Under-voltage protection engages when cell voltage drops below 2.20-2.50V per cell, preventing irreversible capacity loss and potential cell chemistry degradation that renders batteries unrechargeable.

Battery protection circuits for demanding applications utilize integrated circuits (ICs) with MOSFETs to switch lithium cells in and out of circuit based on monitored parameters. The over-current protection activates when the IC detects the upper current limit being reached and interrupts the circuit to prevent damage.

Thermal Runaway Prevention Through Active Management

Lithium batteries operate safely between -20°C and 60°C, with optimal charging occurring between 0°C and 45°C. Temperature monitoring represents the most effective method for preventing thermal runaway propagation in custom battery pack designs. Critical prevention mechanisms include:

• Real-time temperature monitoring at individual cell level • Automatic isolation of problematic cells within milliseconds
  • Built-in thermal suppression systems for high-energy applications • Emergency disconnect capabilities for fault conditions

The 2025 safety standards mandate that all lithium battery designs incorporate redundant thermal management pathways and demonstrate safe operation even when primary cooling systems fail.

Multi-Layer Safety Architecture

Primary safety circuits manage basic protection functions including over-voltage, under-voltage, over-current, and temperature monitoring. Secondary safety circuits provide backup protection when primary systems fail. High-reliability applications require multiple current protection thresholds with different response times. Premium battery management systems implement fail-safe designs where protection switches default to safe states upon control signal loss.

Our design methodology incorporates continuous monitoring of all safety systems with fault detection capable of transitioning to protected states within milliseconds. This approach ensures that secondary protection remains operational even if primary safety systems experience failures that could otherwise lead to hazardous thermal conditions.

Environmental and Mechanical Design Considerations

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Environmental conditions determine battery pack longevity in operational applications. Mechanical design considerations frequently override electrical specifications when batteries encounter temperature extremes, vibration, moisture, or corrosive atmospheres during actual service conditions.

Harsh Environment Applications

Extreme operating environments subject battery packs to multiple stress factors simultaneously. Deep-space and underwater applications expose lithium-ion cells to radiation fields, pressure differentials, and temperature cycling that can degrade electrochemical performance. Environmental factors including corrosive gases, salt spray, and UV radiation require specialized housing materials and protective coatings.

Hazardous location applications demand explosion-proof enclosure designs with controlled venting systems. Valve-regulated cells prevent internal gas accumulation while maintaining hermetic seals required for hazardous area certification. Potting compounds provide additional protection through chemical-resistant, moisture-proof barriers that isolate sensitive circuitry from environmental contaminants.

Vibration and Shock Resistance Design

Mechanical shock and vibration directly affect battery performance through electrode material displacement and internal connection fatigue. Extended vibration exposure causes active material spalling, reducing available capacity, while impact forces can displace internal components and create short-circuit conditions. Effective shock absorption requires specialized cushioning materials designed for battery pack applications.

Vibration isolation materials include:

• Silicone foams with controlled compression characteristics
• Rogers Poron® urethane foam for high-frequency dampening
• Bisco® silicone foam for temperature stability
• High-bond structural adhesives for component securement

Silicone materials maintain elastic properties across temperature ranges from -80°C to 250°C, providing consistent vibration isolation under varying thermal conditions. Proper component restraint prevents internal movement during transportation and operational vibration exposure.

Ingress Protection Standards and Sealing Methods

The IP rating system specifies environmental protection levels through two numerical designations—solid particle ingress (IP1x through IP6x) and liquid ingress protection (IPx1 through IPx8). Industrial applications typically require IP67 certification, ensuring complete dust protection and submersion resistance to 1 meter depth for 30 minutes.

Sealing methodologies include formed-in-place gaskets (FIPG) applied during assembly and cured-in-place gaskets (CIPG) that cure prior to installation. FIPG systems create permanent seals but prevent future disassembly, while CIPG gaskets allow component separation for service access. Gasket bead uniformity remains critical—dimensional variations or voids compromise environmental sealing effectiveness and potentially affect safety performance.

Regulatory Compliance and Certification Requirements

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Regulatory compliance represents a mandatory aspect of custom battery pack commercialization. Our certification experience demonstrates that proper planning during the design phase significantly reduces both timeline and cost impacts.

Certification Testing and Documentation Requirements

Battery certification requirements depend on chemistry type and intended application. UN38.3 testing establishes the foundation for lithium battery transportation, encompassing eight specific tests: altitude simulation, thermal cycling, vibration, shock, external short circuit, impact, overcharge, and forced discharge. The testing process requires 17 sample packs and typically completes within 6-8 weeks. Consumer electronics applications require UL 2054/62133 certification, demanding 55 sample packs with testing cycles extending 12-14 weeks.

Certification costs vary significantly based on testing requirements:

• 3: USD 5,000-15,000
• UL 2054/62133: USD 10,000-25,000
• IEC 62133: USD 8,000-20,000

Manufacturers must complete certification before production scaling. Changing production facilities requires recertification regardless of design similarity, as certification reports specify manufacturer details and production location.

Battery Identification and Traceability Systems

European Union regulations mandate unique battery passport systems for EV and industrial batteries exceeding 2kWh capacity, effective January 2026. These digital passports require QR code accessibility and real-time data updates. South Korea implements similar battery identification requirements within battery management systems starting February 2025.

Required battery passport data includes:

• Manufacturing specifications, chemical composition, and application details
• Performance metrics and durability testing results updated throughout operational lifecycle
• Carbon footprint documentation (mandatory from July 2024)
• Recycled material content percentages for critical raw materials

The Global Battery Alliance Battery Passport initiative establishes standardized reporting frameworks for battery sustainability data worldwide.

Documentation Standards for International Markets

Shipping documentation requirements follow strict regulatory protocols. Required documents include:

• Shipper’s Declaration for Dangerous Goods specifying UN classification and shipping designation
• Material Safety Data Sheet detailing chemical composition and handling requirements
• Commercial invoice including HS classification code for customs processing
• Test certification reports demonstrating compliance with applicable safety standards

EPA battery labeling guidelines currently under development (expected finalization 2026) will standardize consumer information across battery categories to improve recycling compliance rates. These guidelines address product identification and end-of-life disposal procedures for battery-containing devices.

Custom battery pack design requires systematic integration of electrochemical, thermal, mechanical, and safety engineering principles. Cell selection, protection circuits, thermal management, and compliance testing all contribute to the final product’s operational reliability and commercial success.

The fundamental design challenge involves managing competing technical requirements. High energy density applications benefit from specific electrode configurations and charging parameters, while high power applications require different optimization strategies. Thermal management systems must address both normal operation and fault conditions, with lithium-ion chemistry requiring particular attention to prevent thermal runaway scenarios.

Safety protection represents a non-negotiable requirement for lithium battery systems. Primary protection circuits monitor voltage, current, and temperature parameters, while secondary protection systems provide backup functionality. The protection circuits are contained in what is commonly referred to as the protection circuit module (PCM), which manages the electronics of a rechargeable battery pack by monitoring its state, reporting that data, and controlling its environment.

Environmental considerations significantly impact design complexity and cost. The IP rating goes hand in hand with the battery enclosure development, determining how watertight, dust resistant, and dirt resistant the battery enclosure will be. Applications requiring higher IP ratings will increase costs and weight, so the protection level should match the actual operating environment requirements.

Certification requirements vary by application and geographic market. UN 38.3 testing is mandatory for lithium battery transportation, while UL 2054 and IEC 62133 apply to specific product categories. All of the costs and lead times of these tests will vary depending on the battery construction, capacity, pack size, and cycle requirements.

Battery technology continues advancing rapidly, with new regulations for battery identification and lifecycle tracking taking effect globally. Our technical staff will work with you to generate material specifications, product renderings, complete documentation, and prototypes that meet both current requirements and anticipated future standards.

The objective for any design is to keep the costs down and the timeline tight, and our experience has demonstrated that the only way to do that is to get an agreed upon specification developed prior to starting development.

For your next custom battery project, please contact Large Power!

Key Takeaways

Understanding the hidden complexities of custom battery design enables engineers to create safer, more efficient power solutions that meet specific application requirements while ensuring regulatory compliance.

• Cell selection drives performance: Choose cylindrical cells for durability, prismatic for space efficiency, or pouch cells for flexible form factors based on your application’s thermal and mechanical requirements.
• Safety systems prevent catastrophic failures: Implement multilayered protection against overcharge, over-discharge, and thermal runaway through redundant BMS circuits and active thermal management.
• Performance optimization requires strategic trade-offs: Balance energy density versus power delivery by adjusting electrode thickness, porosity, and charge voltage limits to maximize either capacity or discharge rates.
• Environmental design determines real-world longevity: Protect against vibration, shock, and moisture through proper cushioning materials, IP67-rated sealing, and specialized housing for harsh conditions.
• Regulatory compliance is mandatory for market entry: Secure UN38.3, UL 2054, and regional certifications early in development, with costs ranging $5,000-25,000 and timelines of 6-14 weeks.

The key to successful custom battery development lies in understanding that every design decision creates cascading effects across performance, safety, and compliance—making expert guidance essential for navigating these complex interdependencies.

FAQs

Q1. What is the optimal charging range for lithium-ion batteries? For maximum longevity, it’s recommended to keep lithium-ion batteries charged between 20% and 80% of their full capacity. This practice, known as the 20-80 rule, can significantly extend battery life compared to regularly charging to 100% or depleting to 0%.

Q2. How do different cell types affect battery pack design? Cell type selection impacts performance and design. Cylindrical cells offer durability and good thermal management, prismatic cells maximize space efficiency, and pouch cells provide flexibility for custom shapes. The choice depends on the specific application requirements.

Q3. What safety features are crucial in custom battery pack design? Critical safety features include overcharge and over-discharge protection, thermal runaway prevention systems, and redundant safety circuits. These mechanisms help prevent catastrophic failures and ensure safe operation across various conditions.

Q4. How does environmental protection factor into battery design? Environmental protection is crucial for battery longevity. This includes designing for vibration and shock resistance using specialized cushioning materials, and implementing proper sealing techniques to achieve appropriate Ingress Protection (IP) ratings for dust and water resistance.

Q5. What certifications are required for custom battery packs? Key certifications include UN38.3 for transportation safety, and UL 2054/62133 for consumer electronics. These certifications involve extensive testing of multiple sample packs and can take several weeks to months to complete, with costs ranging from $5,000 to $25,000 depending on the specific standards required.

The type of lithium battery required for industrial applications is determined by the specific requirements of the equipment being powered: device voltage, load-current, capacity requirements, environmental considerations, physical space constraints, and operational safety parameters. The “Guide to Lithium-ion Battery Solutions” by Shimadzu Corporation provides detailed methodologies for testing and analyzing lithium-ion battery performance across these critical parameters. Our engineering team has designed custom battery solutions for industrial applications for more than two decades, and we understand that proper cell selection and battery pack configuration directly affects system reliability, operational costs, and equipment service life.

Custom lithium battery solutions require thorough analysis across multiple technical dimensions to meet industrial specifications. Testing protocols must evaluate material properties, thermal characteristics, electrochemical performance, and mechanical durability under actual operating conditions. Each industrial application presents unique electrical, mechanical, and environmental challenges that cannot be addressed with off-the-shelf battery solutions. The battery pack design process involves selecting appropriate chemistry, configuring cells to meet voltage and capacity requirements, integrating protection circuits, and developing enclosures that provide adequate thermal management and physical protection.

The selection process begins with a detailed assessment of your application requirements. Voltage requirements, current draw patterns, duty cycle characteristics, temperature range, physical dimensions, and regulatory compliance needs all influence the optimal battery configuration. This technical guide outlines the critical factors that determine battery pack performance in industrial environments. We will examine application-specific requirements, compare performance characteristics across different lithium chemistries, and discuss customization options that address specific operational challenges. The objective is to provide you with the technical knowledge required to specify battery systems that deliver reliable performance, meet safety requirements, and provide cost-effective operation for your industrial application.

Application Requirements Assessment

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Battery pack design requirements are determined by three fundamental application parameters: energy-power characteristics, operational duty cycles, and physical installation constraints. Each parameter directly influences cell chemistry selection, pack configuration, and protection circuit design.

Energy Density vs Power Density Requirements

Industrial applications typically require either high energy density for extended runtime or high power density for rapid discharge—rarely both characteristics simultaneously. Lithium-ion batteries excel in energy density applications where consistent energy delivery over extended periods is essential. These cells provide superior energy storage capacity while maintaining lower weight compared to alternative chemistries.

Applications requiring immediate high-power output for brief periods—such as UPS systems delivering substantial power for seconds or minutes—may benefit from different chemistry selections. Nickel-zinc batteries deliver equivalent power output to lead-acid batteries while occupying half the physical space. The trade-off involves reduced energy capacity for increased power capability.

Operational Duty Cycles and Runtime Parameters

Equipment operational patterns determine battery configuration requirements. Continuous high-power applications require different cell arrangements than intermittent-use equipment. Testing data shows cells operating under high-performance duty cycles exhibit accelerated characteristic changes compared to standard cycle operation.

Runtime specifications vary significantly across industrial applications. Pallet truck operations may require continuous 24-hour availability, while emergency backup systems need reliable operation for specific duration periods. Properly selected lithium-ion batteries can reduce overall energy consumption by 20% compared to lead-acid alternatives. Industrial lithium-ion cells maintain performance consistency across wide temperature ranges, providing reliable operation in variable environmental conditions.

Physical Space and Mounting Configuration

Installation requirements often determine final battery pack configuration. Industrial lithium solutions accommodate multiple mounting configurations:

• 19-inch rack mountingfollows industry standards with 3U or 5U height specifications, allowing installation into existing infrastructure without custom mounting hardware • DIN rail installationprovides secure mounting on standard 35mm rails within industrial control panels and enclosures
  • Wall-mounted configurations optimize vertical space utilization while eliminating floor space requirements and maintaining proper ventilation

Space-constrained installations benefit from compact high-capacity solutions delivering over 5kWh in minimal footprints—as small as 3U × 420mm dimensions.

Battery Performance Characteristics and Selection Criteria

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Performance evaluation across multiple technical parameters determines the suitability of custom lithium battery solutions for industrial applications. Battery performance varies significantly based on chemistry, cell construction, and operating conditions, requiring systematic comparison of discharge characteristics, thermal behavior, and cycle life expectations.

Discharge Rate Performance and Energy Efficiency

The C-rate defines the charge and discharge speed relative to battery capacity. A 1C rate completely charges or discharges a battery in one hour, while 4C represents a 15-minute charge time. Higher C-rates typically accelerate capacity degradation. Li-ion batteries demonstrate exceptional efficiency under optimal conditions, achieving coulombic efficiency exceeding 99%. Efficiency decreases to approximately 97% at 0.5C discharge rates and drops further at 1C. Electric vehicle applications typically achieve 86% energy efficiency in real-world conditions.

Different lithium chemistries exhibit distinct performance characteristics. Lithium cobalt cells cannot exceed their specified C-rating during charging or discharging without thermal issues, whereas lithium iron phosphate cells tolerate higher currents with minimal heat generation. Industrial applications requiring high-rate discharge capability typically specify lithium batteries rated at 10C or higher.

Temperature Operating Windows and Thermal Management Requirements

Operating temperature directly affects both battery performance and service life. Lithium-ion batteries function optimally between 15°C and 35°C. Power capacity decreases dramatically at low temperatures—from 800 W/L at 25°C to 10 W/L at -40°C. High temperatures accelerate degradation and create safety risks, with thermal runaway possible at temperatures above 80°C.

Thermal management requirements depend on application duty cycles and environmental conditions. Passive cooling systems provide adequate temperature control for intermittent-use equipment, while continuous high-power applications require active cooling systems. Custom lithium battery solutions integrate appropriate thermal management—resistive heating elements for cold environments and active cooling for high-discharge applications.

Cycle Life Specifications and Degradation Mechanisms

Cycle life varies dramatically among lithium chemistries. Standard lithium-ion batteries provide approximately 2,000 cycles, equivalent to 3-5 years of service. Lithium titanate (LTO) batteries offer exceptional longevity with up to 10,000 cycles. Some lithium chemistries provide only 500 cycles under similar conditions.

Battery degradation accelerates due to deep discharge cycles, overcharging conditions, extreme temperature exposure, and high C-rate operation. Capacity fade and resistance increase demonstrate strong correlation (r<−0.8 in 97% of cases), indicating that aging mechanisms simultaneously affect both parameters. Monitoring either capacity or internal resistance provides reliable battery health assessment.

Lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries represent the optimal choice for industrial applications requiring maximum service life, offering extended cycle life, enhanced safety characteristics, and cost-effective operation.

Custom Battery Pack Development and Configuration Options

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Battery pack customization addresses specific industrial challenges that standard off-the-shelf solutions cannot meet. Our engineering team designs custom battery configurations to match exact electrical, mechanical, and environmental requirements rather than forcing applications to adapt to available products.

Modular Voltage and Capacity Design

Custom battery pack development begins with configuring cells to achieve the required voltage and capacity specifications. Modular battery designs permit capacity increases in 5P increments and voltage configurations from 7S (24V) up to 224S (830V). This approach allows precise matching of electrical characteristics to load requirements. Standard building blocks include 24V configurations (25.2V/22.5Ah/567Wh) and 48V variants (50.4V/22.5Ah/1.134kWh) that can be combined for higher voltage or capacity systems.

The number of cells, the size of the cell, and how the cells are assembled defines the electrical characteristics and physical dimensions of the pack. Series connections increase voltage while parallel connections increase capacity. Custom configurations optimize both parameters to meet specific application demands without oversizing the battery system.

Battery Management System Integration

Advanced battery management systems provide sophisticated monitoring and control functions essential for industrial applications. Custom BMS designs include:

• Continuous monitoring of voltage, current, temperature, and state of charge
• Communication interfaces including CAN bus, RS485, or Bluetooth protocols
• Data logging capabilities for predictive maintenance programs
• Programmable alert systems for operational parameters

BMS functionality can be tailored to specific application requirements. Simple applications may require only basic protection circuits, while complex systems benefit from full communication integration with facility monitoring systems.

Mechanical Design and Environmental Protection

Industrial battery enclosures must protect cells and electronics from harsh operating environments. Custom enclosure designs provide:

• IP54 or higher ingress protection ratingsfor dust and moisture resistance
• Operating temperature ranges from 32°F to 140°F
• Mechanical protection against shock, vibration, and corrosive conditions
• Compliance with required certifications including UL, UKCA, CE, IEC, and UN38.3

Enclosure materials are selected based on environmental conditions and regulatory requirements. For applications with extreme conditions, specialized materials and construction methods ensure reliable long-term operation.

System Integration and Compatibility

Modern lithium battery solutions integrate with existing power infrastructure through standardized interfaces and communication protocols. This includes SCADA system compatibility for facility-wide monitoring and direct replacement capability for legacy lead-acid installations. Proper system integration requires careful consideration of voltage compatibility, communication protocol requirements, and physical mounting specifications.

Battery Selection: Cost Analysis, Safety Requirements, and Manufacturing Support

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The final battery selection decision requires evaluation of three critical factors beyond technical specifications: long-term cost analysis, mandatory safety certifications, and manufacturer support capabilities. Our experience with hundreds of industrial battery installations has demonstrated that these factors often determine project success more than initial technical performance metrics.

Total Cost Analysis and Long-Term Value

Initial battery costs represent only a fraction of total ownership expenses over the system’s operational life. Lithium batteries typically cost 2-3 times more upfront than lead-acid alternatives, but their total cost of ownership proves substantially lower due to extended service life and reduced maintenance requirements. Lead-acid batteries average 500-1000 cycles before replacement, while lithium iron phosphate batteries deliver 4000+ cycles under similar operating conditions.

Operating efficiency creates additional cost advantages. Lithium batteries achieve 96% charging efficiency compared to 75% for lead-acid systems. This 21% efficiency difference translates directly to reduced electricity costs throughout the battery’s service life. Maintenance requirements also differ significantly—lithium systems require virtually no scheduled maintenance, while lead-acid batteries need regular electrolyte monitoring and periodic replacement.

The faster you discharge or the more extreme the operating temperature, the greater the cost advantage of properly selected lithium chemistry. For applications with high discharge rates or challenging environmental conditions, the total cost advantage of lithium systems increases substantially.

Regulatory Compliance and Safety Certifications

Lithium batteries are considered hazardous materials and are subject to various regulations. Essential certifications for industrial applications include:

• UN38.3 for transportation safety—required for all lithium battery shipments • UL/CSA standards for North American installations • IEC certifications for European market compliance • Industry-specific requirements such as ABYC E-13 for marine applications

These certifications verify that battery packs have passed rigorous testing including altitude simulation, thermal cycling, vibration, shock, external short circuit, impact, overcharge, and forced discharge conditions. The certification process involves significant testing fees and documentation requirements, but proper certification is mandatory for commercial deployment and reduces liability exposure.

New regulations continue to evolve, particularly for air transport. Regulations passed in 2016 tightened requirements for lithium battery shipments and prohibited lithium batteries on passenger aircraft. Companies planning international distribution must factor these shipping restrictions into their logistics planning.

Manufacturer Support and Service Capabilities

Technical support quality varies dramatically among battery manufacturers. Evaluate potential suppliers based on their engineering support capabilities, warranty coverage, and long-term business stability. Established manufacturers offer comprehensive warranties extending to 4 years with full replacement guarantees. The financial stability of your battery manufacturer affects continued parts availability and technical support throughout your system’s operational life.

Consider whether the manufacturer handles the complete development process in-house or subcontracts critical functions to third parties. Companies that manage design, prototyping, testing, and manufacturing internally provide better control over quality, lead times, and design modifications. Manufacturers who pass off portions of the process to other suppliers may introduce additional costs and lead time complications.

Finding out which parts of the development and production will be performed in-house with the manufacturer, and which components will be passed off to other shops, will help you understand what additional costs and lead times will be needed for your project.

You can always trust Large Power as your next lithium battery supplier, contact us for more details!

Conclusion

Custom lithium battery solutions for industrial applications require systematic evaluation of electrical, mechanical, and operational parameters to ensure optimal system performance. Our technical staff has worked with customers across diverse industries to generate battery specifications that meet demanding application requirements while maintaining cost-effectiveness and regulatory compliance.

The battery selection process must begin with clearly defined operational parameters. Voltage requirements, current draw patterns, duty cycle characteristics, and environmental conditions determine the appropriate cell chemistry and configuration. Applications requiring high energy density benefit from lithium-ion chemistries, while high-power applications may require different cell configurations or alternative chemistries entirely. The faster you discharge or the lower the temperature, the lower the capacity of the battery will be, which directly impacts system performance calculations.

Performance evaluation requires examining charge/discharge rates, temperature tolerance, and cycle life characteristics across different lithium chemistries. Standard lithium-ion batteries average 2,000 cycles, while specialized chemistries like LTO can deliver up to 10,000 cycles, significantly affecting total cost of ownership calculations. Cell capacity is rated in amp-hours, and the calculation of run time versus current provides the foundation for determining appropriate battery sizing.

Custom battery pack development offers significant advantages over off-the-shelf solutions when specific performance criteria must be met. Tailored voltage configurations, specialized battery management systems, and custom enclosures address unique application challenges that cannot be resolved with standard products. Smart battery pack functionality provides the device with information for charge management, error reporting, and run-time prediction through communication protocols like SMBus or CAN bus.

Total cost of ownership considerations often favor lithium solutions despite higher initial investment costs. The extended cycle life, reduced maintenance requirements, and superior energy efficiency create substantial savings over the operational life of the equipment. Our experience demonstrates that properly specified lithium battery systems typically provide better long-term value compared to alternative technologies.

Regulatory compliance remains essential for all lithium battery applications. UN38.3 transportation safety certification, UL standards, and IEC certifications verify that battery designs meet rigorous testing requirements including altitude, thermal, vibration, shock, and short circuit conditions. These certifications are mandatory for commercial deployment and require careful coordination during the development process.

Technical support and manufacturing capabilities should factor into your supplier selection process. The battery industry continues advancing rapidly, with new cell technologies and safety requirements emerging regularly. Working with an established battery manufacturer ensures access to current technology, proper testing facilities, and ongoing technical assistance throughout your product lifecycle.

The objective for any battery design is to meet performance requirements while maintaining cost-effectiveness and regulatory compliance. Our engineering team works with customers to finalize specifications and develop custom solutions that address specific application challenges while ensuring reliable operation in demanding industrial environments.

Key Takeaways

Choosing the right lithium battery solution for industrial applications requires balancing technical specifications with operational requirements and long-term value considerations.

• Assess application-specific needs first: Match energy vs power requirements, duty cycles, and space constraints to determine optimal battery configuration for your specific industrial use case.
• Prioritize total cost of ownership over initial price: Despite higher upfront costs, lithium batteries deliver 4x longer lifespans and 96% charging efficiency compared to lead-acid alternatives.
• Leverage customization for optimal performance: Tailored voltage configurations, smart BMS features, and custom enclosures transform batteries into intelligent system components that prevent failures.
• Ensure proper certifications and support: UN38.3, UL/CSA, and IEC certifications are non-negotiable, while manufacturer stability ensures continued technical support throughout operational life.
• Consider performance metrics carefully: Charge/discharge rates, temperature tolerance, and cycle life (ranging from 2,000 to 10,000+ cycles) directly impact operational efficiency and system reliability.

The key to successful lithium battery selection lies in working with experienced manufacturers who understand that proper matching of battery specifications to application requirements delivers superior long-term value through reduced maintenance, extended equipment life, and improved operational efficiency.

FAQs

Q1. What factors should I consider when choosing a lithium battery for industrial applications? When selecting a lithium battery for industrial use, consider your specific energy and power requirements, duty cycles, space constraints, operating temperature range, and expected lifespan. Also, evaluate the total cost of ownership, safety certifications, and after-sales support.

Q2. How do lithium batteries compare to lead-acid batteries in terms of efficiency and lifespan? Lithium batteries offer superior efficiency and longevity compared to lead-acid batteries. They typically have a charging efficiency of 96% versus 75% for lead-acid, and can last for 4000+ cycles compared to 500-1000 cycles for lead-acid batteries.

Q3. What are the benefits of customized lithium battery solutions? Customized lithium battery solutions offer tailored voltage and capacity configurations, smart BMS features for remote monitoring, custom enclosures for harsh environments, and seamless integration with existing power infrastructure. These features allow for optimized performance in specific industrial applications.

Q4. How important are certifications for industrial lithium batteries? Certifications are crucial for industrial lithium batteries. Key certifications include UN38.3 for transportation safety, UL/CSA standards for North American markets, and IEC certifications for European markets. These ensure the batteries meet rigorous safety and performance standards.

Q5. What is the optimal charging range for lithium batteries? For optimal performance and longevity, it’s generally recommended to keep lithium batteries charged between 20% and 80% of their full capacity. This practice, known as the 20-80% rule, can help extend the battery’s lifespan in many applications.

A fully charged lithium battery requires 14.6 volts, yet standard charging systems consistently fail to reach this critical threshold. The selection of appropriate lithium battery and charger combinations directly determines system performance, cycle life, and operational safety across power applications.

Optimal charging protocols specify 14.4 volts for lithium batteries rather than maximum capacity charging. This approach maintains performance parameters while ensuring adequate protection mechanisms. Standard converters in RV and industrial applications typically output only 13.2 to 13.6 volts, creating a significant performance gap that limits lithium battery utilization. This voltage shortfall necessitates careful evaluation of charging infrastructure compatibility when implementing lithium power systems.

As custom battery pack manufacturers, we have documented these charging limitations across diverse applications. Large Power develops engineered battery and power solutions for complex applications, providing the technical expertise required to address charging compatibility challenges in modern power systems.

This technical guide examines the fundamental differences between lithium and lead-acid charging protocols, methods for identifying compatible charging systems, and specific implementation considerations for various voltage configurations including 36V lithium battery and charger installations. Our integrated design, manufacturing, and testing capabilities ensure power system reliability through proper component matching and performance validation.

Lithium Battery Charging Fundamentals

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Lithium battery charging protocols require understanding of fundamental power conversion processes within electrical systems. Proper charging methodology directly influences performance parameters and operational lifespan across lithium power applications.

AC to DC Power Conversion in Mobile and Off-Grid Applications

RV and off-grid power systems depend on conversion equipment to transform alternating current (AC) from shore power or generator sources into direct current (DC) for battery storage. These conversion devices, designated as “converters” or “converter-chargers,” perform the essential function of power conditioning.

Modern RV converter-chargers transform 110-volt AC input power into 12-volt DC output suitable for battery charging applications. Installation typically occurs adjacent to the power distribution center to facilitate shore power connections. Output circuits connect directly to the DC load distribution system, supplying power to connected devices while simultaneously charging battery systems.

Standard converter designs present significant limitations for lithium battery applications. Conventional units were engineered for lead-acid battery chemistry and lack the specific charging algorithms required for lithium systems. Field reports indicate that standard converters only charge lithium batteries to approximately 80% capacity due to inadequate voltage output specifications.

Advanced inverter-charger systems provide bidirectional power conversion capabilities. These units convert AC to DC for battery charging operations and subsequently invert battery DC power to usable AC when shore power becomes unavailable. Off-grid solar installations utilize charge controllers, particularly MPPT (Maximum Power Point Tracking) technology, to convert photovoltaic panel voltage into appropriate charging voltage for battery systems.

Lithium Battery Charging Profile Requirements

Lithium chemistry demands precise charging control parameters that differ significantly from traditional battery technologies. The charging profile for lithium batteries follows a two-stage process: Constant Current (CC) followed by Constant Voltage (CV). During the CC phase, controlled current flows into the battery until reaching a predetermined voltage threshold. The system then transitions to CV mode, maintaining voltage while current decreases progressively.

This precision requirement stems from lithium ion electrochemical behavior. Within each cell, lithium ions migrate between anode and cathode electrodes through an electrolyte medium. The charging process involves lithium ion release from the cathode and acceptance at the anode—electrochemical reactions requiring exact voltage control for operational safety and efficiency.

Critical factors that differentiate lithium charging specifications include:

• Precise voltage tolerances: Lithium manufacturers specify exact voltage parameters, unlike the voltage flexibility available with lead-acid systems • Elimination of trickle charging: Lithium batteries do not benefit from continuous low-current charging after reaching full capacity • Integrated protection systems: Quality lithium batteries incorporate Battery Management Systems (BMS) that continuously monitor voltage, current, and temperature during charging operations

Standard lead-acid chargers cannot adequately charge lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) batteries due to fundamental charging requirement differences. This incompatibility exists because lithium batteries require specific charging algorithms with voltage thresholds that exceed lead-acid system specifications.

Optimal battery performance requires moderate charging rates, typically 0.2C or lower. A 100Ah battery system would charge optimally at 20 amps maximum current. Excessive charging rates can damage electrode structures as lithium ions cannot properly intercalate into graphite electrode materials.

Temperature parameters significantly affect charging processes. Most lithium batteries cannot safely accept charge below 0°C due to electrode thermal contraction and reduced electrolyte conductivity. Operating temperatures exceeding 45°C should be avoided to prevent accelerated capacity degradation.

Our custom lithium battery solutions incorporate integrated BMS technology to maintain proper charging parameters across applications ranging from medical devices to advanced robotics systems.

Fundamental Charging Differences Between Lead-Acid and Lithium Chemistry

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Battery chemistry fundamentally determines charging requirements across power applications. The electrochemical processes within lead-acid versus lithium cells create distinct charging protocols that directly impact system design and operational parameters.

Voltage Requirements: 12.7V vs 14.6V

Cell structure defines voltage characteristics between these chemistries. Lead-acid batteries comprise six 2V cells totaling 12V nominal voltage, reaching approximately 12.7V to 12.8V when fully charged. Lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) batteries contain four 3.2V cells yielding 12.8V nominal voltage, requiring 14.6V for complete charging. This structural difference creates the 1.9V charging gap that necessitates chemistry-specific charging equipment.

Discharge voltage profiles reveal additional distinctions. Lithium batteries maintain approximately 13V at 20% remaining capacity, whereas lead-acid batteries drop to 11.8V under similar discharge conditions. This voltage retention characteristic provides lithium batteries with superior performance throughout the discharge cycle.

Charging Protocol Variations

Lead-acid charging follows a three-stage process:

1. Bulk charge (constant current)
2. Absorption charge (constant voltage)
3. Float charge (maintenance)

Lithium chemistry employs a simplified two-stage approach:

1. Constant Current (CC) phase
2. Constant Voltage (CV) phase

This streamlined charging process contributes to lithium’s superior energy efficiency, typically 95-98% compared to lead-acid’s 75-85%. The efficiency improvement translates directly to reduced charging time and lower energy consumption during the charging process.

Charging speed represents another significant advantage. Lithium batteries accept charge approximately four times faster than lead-acid equivalents. Applications requiring rapid recharge cycles benefit substantially from lithium chemistry selection.

Protection Requirements and Battery Management Systems

Overcharging tolerance varies dramatically between these technologies. Lead-acid batteries generally accommodate minor overcharging through float charging protocols. Extended overcharging gradually degrades capacity through electrolyte loss and grid corrosion mechanisms.

Lithium batteries demonstrate heightened sensitivity to overcharging conditions. Excessive charging can trigger thermal runaway, potentially resulting in fire or explosion scenarios. This sensitivity stems from lithium dendrite formation—metallic structures that can puncture cell separators and create short circuits.

Advanced lithium battery solutions incorporate sophisticated Battery Management Systems (BMS) to address these safety requirements. Industry analysis confirms that “Lead acid batteries generally do not have a battery management system”. The BMS continuously monitors cell voltage, current, and temperature parameters, preventing overcharging by calculating safe current limits and communicating with charging equipment.

These fundamental differences require lithium-compatible chargers rather than attempting to adapt lead-acid charging equipment for lithium applications. Proper charger selection ensures optimal safety and performance across demanding applications from medical devices to industrial power systems.

Lithium-Compatible Charger Requirements Assessment

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Charger compatibility assessment represents a critical evaluation process for lithium battery system implementation. Our experience manufacturing custom battery packs has documented numerous compatibility failures that compromise both performance and operational longevity. The following systematic approach determines whether lithium-specific charging equipment is required for your application.

Identifying Incompatible Charging Equipment

Charging system incompatibility typically manifests through documented specifications and operational characteristics. Product documentation frequently contains explicit statements such as “do not support lithium battery”. Standard RV converters, particularly older model designations, lack the necessary charging algorithms to reach the required 14.6V threshold.

Current converter evaluation should identify these incompatibility indicators:

• Exclusive design specifications for lead-acid, AGM, or gel battery chemistries
• Maximum voltage output limitations below 14.6V requirements
• Equalization charging modes that exceed safe lithium voltage parameters
• Absence of lithium-specific charging algorithm programming
• Calcium battery charger configurations with excessive voltage output

Model number verification through manufacturer documentation provides definitive compatibility confirmation. Legacy charging units without programmable voltage control typically cannot accommodate lithium chemistry requirements.

Diagnostic Indicators of Charging Problems

Charging irregularities present through measurable performance characteristics. Undercharging conditions limit batteries to approximately 80% state of charge (SOC) with incompatible charging equipment. This capacity limitation reduces usable energy storage by 5-15% while decreasing operational runtime.

Overcharging conditions produce these observable warning indicators:

• Physical battery case expansion due to electrolyte decomposition
• Elevated temperature generation during charging cycles
• Chemical odor emission from cell venting mechanisms
• Unstable voltage measurements and accelerated self-discharge rates

Battery management system (BMS) protection circuits respond to unsafe parameters by disconnecting charging current. However, dependence on BMS intervention rather than proper charging equipment compromises long-term performance optimization.

Charging System Upgrade Decision Criteria

Upgrade requirements depend on specific application parameters and existing equipment capabilities. Initial evaluation should confirm manufacturer charging specifications—certain battery designs accommodate standard chargers while others require lithium-specific equipment.

Replacement becomes necessary under these operational conditions:

• Existing charger lacks lithium chemistry profile programming
• Repeated BMS protection activation during charging cycles
• Application demands for accelerated charging capabilities
• Consistent performance deficiencies despite proper maintenance protocols
• Substantial battery capacity expansion requirements

Modern charging equipment offers programmable chemistry profiles supporting lithium applications. Specification requirements include voltage settings between 14-14.6V for bulk/absorption phases and 13.3-13.8V for maintenance charging on 12V configurations. Multi-bank charger systems provide balanced charging across series cell arrangements.

Incompatible charger utilization with lithium batteries represents significant capital waste while introducing performance and safety compromises that undermine system reliability.

Lithium Battery Charger Technologies and Applications

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Lithium battery charging equipment encompasses distinct technologies, each optimized for specific operational requirements and system configurations. The selection of appropriate charging technology directly affects system reliability, charging efficiency, and battery cycle life across diverse applications.

Smart Chargers with Programmable Voltage

Smart charging systems provide the most adaptable lithium battery charging solution for complex applications. These units incorporate adjustable voltage settings spanning 12-84V with programmable charging algorithms designed for multiple battery chemistries. The MEAN WELL HEP-1000 series exemplifies this technology, enabling users to connect with smart charger programmers and configure specific charging parameters for individual lithium battery types. This programmability becomes essential when working with batteries from different manufacturers, as identical chemistry variants frequently require distinct voltage configurations to achieve optimal performance.

Inverter-Charger Combinations for Off-Grid Applications

Inverter-charger units integrate dual functionality essential for off-grid power systems. These systems convert AC to DC for battery charging during power availability, then reverse the process to transform battery DC power into usable AC when grid power fails. High-capacity configurations, including 12000-watt pure sine wave inverter-chargers, incorporate automatic transfer switches enabling seamless transitions between grid and battery power sources. Advanced models include auto-generator start functionality, battery temperature sensors, and configurable AC priority settings for comprehensive power management.

RV-Specific Lithium Charging Solutions

RV lithium chargers provide simplified implementation without complex configuration requirements. Available options include the Powermax PM3 55LK with chemistry selection via switch adjustment, the WFCO WF-9855-LIS featuring jumper terminals for lithium/lead-acid switching, and the Progressive Dynamics PD9160ALV designed exclusively for lithium applications. These purpose-engineered units eliminate compatibility issues when retrofitting lithium batteries into existing RV electrical infrastructures.

36V System Charging Requirements

36V lithium configurations require precise charging parameters for optimal performance. Compatible chargers deliver 42-43V output voltage to achieve complete charging cycles. Current settings typically follow 0.5C to 1C recommendations, where C represents battery capacity in amp-hours, balancing charging speed against thermal stress and cycle life considerations. Rapid charging generates increased heat and mechanical stress, potentially reducing battery lifespan—a critical factor when engineering custom battery solutions for demanding applications.

Charger Selection Methodology for Lithium Battery Systems

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Proper charger selection requires systematic evaluation of technical specifications matched to application requirements. Our experience developing integrated power systems demonstrates that methodical charger-battery matching prevents performance limitations and premature failure modes.

Specification Matching Protocol

Voltage compatibility verification forms the foundation of proper charger selection. The charger output voltage must align precisely with battery nominal voltage requirements. For lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) batteries, this specification requires 14.6V for 12V systems. Charging current directly affects both charge time and battery cycle life—optimal performance occurs at 0.5C to 1C rates, where C equals battery capacity in amp-hours.

Application-Specific Charger Requirements

Each application environment imposes distinct charger specifications. RV systems require multi-stage chargers with lithium-specific profiles to accommodate varying power source availability. Solar installations necessitate chargers with MPPT controller integration for maximum energy harvest efficiency. Marine environments demand waterproof enclosures with IP67 ratings to withstand saltwater exposure. Industrial applications require robust construction with high reliability ratings and network communication capabilities for remote system monitoring.

Manufacturing Partnership Considerations

Collaboration with experienced battery pack suppliers ensures optimal component compatibility across the entire power system. Qualified manufacturers provide technical guidance on charger selection based on specific application parameters. This partnership approach helps identify chargers with appropriate charging algorithms for the selected battery chemistry, preventing common implementation errors that compromise battery performance.

Required Safety Certifications and Standards

Safety certification verification provides assurance of proper engineering design and testing protocols. Essential certifications include UL listings (ANSI/UL1564 for industrial chargers), CSA certification (CAN/CSA-C22.2 NO. 107.2), and CE marking for European market compliance. FCC certification prevents electromagnetic interference with sensitive electronic equipment. International applications may require additional country-specific certifications—Japan mandates PSE certification, while South Korea and Australia maintain distinct certification standards.

Technical Summary

Lithium battery charger selection represents a critical engineering decision affecting system performance, operational safety, and service life. The charging profile for lithium chemistry requires 14.6V for 12V systems compared to 12.7V for lead-acid batteries. Standard chargers designed for conventional batteries consistently fail to deliver proper charging parameters, limiting capacity utilization and reducing cycle life.

Lithium batteries utilize a two-stage charging process rather than the three-stage approach required for lead-acid systems. This fundamental difference necessitates lithium-specific charging equipment for optimal performance. Proper charging protocols prevent both undercharging and overcharging conditions that permanently damage cell electrodes.

Smart chargers with programmable voltage settings provide the most effective solution across diverse applications. RV installations, solar systems, marine applications, and industrial environments each require careful specification matching between charger output parameters and lithium battery requirements. Optimal charging current ranges between 0.5C to 1C, balancing charge rate against thermal stress on cell components.

Safety certifications remain mandatory for reliable operation. UL, CSA, and CE certifications ensure charging equipment meets established testing standards for electromagnetic compatibility and operational safety. These certifications provide verification of proper design and manufacturing quality control processes.

Custom battery manufacturers with integrated engineering capabilities understand the technical complexities involved in power system design. Experienced battery pack suppliers provide essential guidance during charger selection, ensuring compatibility between charging systems and battery specifications. This collaboration produces optimized performance and extended operational life for custom lithium battery applications.

Battery technology continues advancing through improvements in cell chemistry and charging methodologies. The fundamental principles remain constant: voltage parameter matching, current limitation compliance, and appropriate safety standard implementation. Proper charger selection ensures maximum return on lithium battery system investments across lithium battery systems.

Key Takeaways

Choosing the right lithium battery charger is crucial for maximizing performance, safety, and battery lifespan in your power system.

• Voltage matters critically: Lithium batteries require 14.6V for full charging versus 12.7V for lead-acid batteries—standard chargers often fall short at 13.2-13.6V.
• Smart chargers offer best versatility: Programmable voltage settings (12-84V) and lithium-specific algorithms ensure optimal charging across different battery chemistries and applications.
• Match charger current to battery specs: Charge at 0.5C to 1C rate (where C equals battery capacity) to balance charging speed with battery longevity.
• Application-specific features are essential: RV systems need multi-stage profiles, marine environments require IP67 waterproofing, and industrial uses demand network monitoring capabilities.
• Safety certifications prevent costly failures: Look for UL, CSA, and CE certifications to ensure your charger meets rigorous testing standards for reliable operation.

Proper charger selection directly impacts your lithium battery investment—incompatible chargers can reduce usable capacity by 15-20% and trigger protective shutdowns. Working with experienced battery manufacturers ensures optimal compatibility and system performance across diverse applications from RVs to industrial power systems.

FAQs

Q1. What voltage is required to fully charge a lithium battery? A lithium battery typically requires 14.6V for full charging, compared to 12.7V for lead-acid batteries. Standard chargers often only reach 13.2-13.6V, which is insufficient for lithium batteries.

Q2. Are special chargers needed for lithium batteries? Yes, lithium batteries require specific chargers designed for their chemistry. Standard lead-acid chargers lack the appropriate charging profiles and voltage levels needed to properly charge and maintain lithium batteries.

Q3. What features should I look for in a lithium battery charger? Look for smart chargers with programmable voltage settings (12-84V), lithium-specific charging algorithms, and the ability to match your battery’s specs. Also consider application-specific features like multi-stage profiles for RVs or waterproofing for marine use.

Q4. How do I determine the right charging current for my lithium battery? The optimal charging current is typically between 0.5C to 1C, where C equals the battery capacity in amp-hours. For example, a 100Ah battery would charge best at 50-100A. This range balances charging speed with battery longevity.

Q5. What safety certifications should a lithium battery charger have? Look for chargers with UL, CSA, and CE certifications, which ensure the equipment meets rigorous testing standards for safe and reliable operation. FCC certification is also important to prevent electromagnetic interference with other devices.

Heavy equipment batteries deliver 1,150 cold cranking amps, substantially exceeding conventional automotive batteries that generate 500-600 cold cranking amps. This power differential demonstrates the specialized engineering requirements for construction and industrial applications.

Equipment batteries incorporate thicker casings and reinforced construction to withstand extreme vibration conditions on uneven terrain. These design specifications provide enhanced durability against harsh operating environments typical in construction and industrial settings. The enhanced construction addresses mechanical stress factors that standard automotive batteries cannot tolerate.

Selecting appropriate battery platforms can reduce procurement costs by approximately 30%. Maximizing return on investment requires understanding battery chemistry fundamentals and implementing proper maintenance protocols. Proper battery management practices can effectively double operational lifespan while reducing equipment downtime and maintenance expenses.

This technical guide presents proven methodologies for extending heavy equipment battery life, selection criteria for optimal battery chemistry matching specific equipment requirements, and maintenance technologies available for 2025 implementation. Fleet managers overseeing both small-scale operations and large industrial facilities will find these technical insights valuable for maximizing performance while controlling battery-related operational costs.

Critical Importance of Battery Life in Heavy Equipment Operations

“When fleet managers neglect battery maintenance, batteries may corrode or become unusable. Dead batteries will prevent machines from starting, resulting in costly downtime and repairs.” — EquipmentShare Parts Editorial Team, Heavy equipment maintenance experts and official parts supplier

Battery failure in heavy equipment represents a significant operational risk with measurable financial consequences. Premature battery failure costs organizations over $75 million annually in lost productivity and resources. This figure encompasses direct replacement costs plus the operational disruptions that cascade through equipment fleets.

Operational Impact of Battery Failure

Heavy equipment battery failure creates immediate operational paralysis across multiple systems. A single unexpected failure generates operational shutdowns, reduced output capacity, and increased labor expenses. These immediate effects extend beyond downtime to impact client relationships and contract fulfillment capabilities. Fleet operations experience exponential losses when battery-related breakdowns exceed acceptable thresholds.

Battery Replacement Cycles and Economic Analysis

Military vehicle applications require battery replacement approximately every 12 months. This replacement frequency significantly impacts long-term operational economics. Selecting appropriate industrial batteries requires evaluation of multiple performance criteria to optimize return on investment. Lithium-ion batteries typically deliver extended service life compared to lead-acid alternatives. Maintenance requirements represent a critical factor—sealed lead-acid and lithium-ion batteries eliminate routine maintenance tasks, reducing labor costs and service interruptions.

Safety Considerations for Battery System Failures

Failing batteries present substantial safety hazards beyond operational concerns. Lithium-ion batteries contain high energy density in compact configurations. Uncontrolled energy release generates excessive heat that can produce flammable and toxic gas emissions. Battery failures result from multiple failure modes:

• Physical damage or manufacturing defects
• Overcharging or excessive discharge cycling
• Extreme temperature exposure
• Incompatible charging systems or accessories

Damaged batteries exhibiting swelling, bulging, leakage, or cracking present fire hazards. Equipment battery fires burn at temperatures sufficient to melt metal and cause structural collapse. Monitoring protocols should detect warning indicators including excessive heat generation, abnormal sounds, or visible physical damage to prevent catastrophic failures.

Operational Practices for Extended Battery Life

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Daily operational practices determine battery longevity in heavy equipment applications. These established methodologies reduce battery strain and prevent premature component failure through systematic operational controls.

Cranking Duration Management

Excessive cranking during engine starts generates substantial heat loads within starting circuits, accelerating battery and starter motor degradation. Extended cranking attempts create thermal stress that permanently damages battery cell structure and reduces available capacity.

Continued cranking beyond optimal parameters produces:

• Thermal buildup exceeding safe cell operating temperatures
• Mechanical stress on starter motor components
• Deep discharge conditions that reduce battery life cycles

Proper starting protocols limit individual cranking attempts to 5-10 second intervals with cooling periods between attempts. Overcrank protection systems provide automated safeguards that monitor cranking duration and temporarily isolate starting circuits when thermal limits are approached. These protection modules include visual indicators that inform operators when circuits are in thermal protection mode.

Auxiliary Load Isolation

Auxiliary equipment powered directly from starter batteries accelerates deterioration through deep discharge cycles during idle periods. Power demands from cab electronics, HVAC systems, and accessory equipment drain starter batteries below optimal charge levels, reducing cycle life significantly.

Battery management systems protect starter circuits by isolating auxiliary loads during idle operation, preventing deep discharge conditions. Auxiliary power modules supply these systems independently, eliminating unnecessary charge cycles from primary starting batteries. This isolation approach extends battery service life through complete equipment operational cycles.

Real-Time Monitoring Implementation

Onboard monitoring systems provide continuous measurement of voltage, current draw, and operating temperature to calculate state of charge and remaining capacity. These monitoring platforms capture operational data that predicts battery failure before complete discharge occurs.

Battery monitoring prevents no-start incidents that cost operators $900-$1,700 per occurrence in productivity losses and emergency service calls. Advanced monitoring systems measure current loads up to 3,000 amps while recording 1,000 voltage samples per second, performing comprehensive starting system diagnostics with each engine start sequence.

These three operational controls form the foundation for doubling battery service life while reducing maintenance requirements across equipment fleets.

Battery Selection Criteria for Heavy Equipment Applications

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Battery selection for heavy equipment requires matching electrochemical characteristics to specific operational parameters. The selection process determines performance capabilities, maintenance protocols, and total cost of ownership across the equipment lifecycle.

Power Requirements and Chemistry Selection

Equipment power demands dictate appropriate battery chemistry selection. Lead-acid batteries provide cost-effective solutions for standard applications, requiring regular electrolyte maintenance protocols. Lithium-ion chemistry delivers 3,500-5,000 charge cycles compared to approximately 500 cycles for lead-acid alternatives. The extended cycle life justifies higher initial investment for high-demand applications with frequent charge-discharge patterns.

Battery Chemistry Comparison Analysis

Each battery technology offers distinct operational characteristics:

• Flooded Lead-Acid: Cost-effective with high instantaneous power output, requires periodic electrolyte level maintenance and ventilation considerations
• AGM Batteries: Sealed construction eliminates maintenance requirements, provides superior vibration resistance and faster charge acceptance rates
• Gel Electrolyte: Temperature-stable performance with minimal maintenance demands, limited by lower power density and extended charge times

AGM technology commands higher procurement costs but eliminates maintenance labor while extending operational lifespan.

Physical Specifications and Fitment Parameters

BCI Group Size classifications define battery dimensions, terminal configurations, and electrical specifications. Heavy equipment applications typically utilize Group 24, 27, 29, 30, and 31 classifications. Physical fitment verification requires confirming length, width, and height dimensions against equipment battery compartment specifications. Cold cranking amps (CCA) and reserve capacity ratings must meet or exceed manufacturer requirements to ensure reliable starting performance.

Advanced Charging and Maintenance Technology for Equipment Battery Management

“Lead-acid batteries need frequent watering, corrosion checks, and regular cleaning. Facilities without dedicated battery maintenance staff may struggle to perform these tasks consistently.” — Leoch Lithium Editorial Team, Battery technology experts, Leoch Lithium

Battery maintenance technology for heavy equipment has advanced considerably, offering operators sophisticated tools for maximizing battery performance while controlling replacement costs. These technological solutions address the complex charging requirements and monitoring needs of modern equipment fleets.

Smart Battery Maintainer Technology

Smart battery maintainers provide regulated, low-amperage charging that compensates for self-discharge during storage periods. These devices incorporate voltage-sensing circuits that detect full charge conditions and automatically terminate charging current, preventing overcharge damage. Heavy equipment battery maintainers are engineered for continuous connection over extended periods, unlike consumer electronics chargers. Equipment with seasonal operation patterns or intermittent deployment schedules particularly benefit from these maintenance charging systems.

Solar Power Integration for Remote Operations

Solar charging systems have become viable solutions for equipment batteries at remote worksites where grid power is unavailable. Flexible photovoltaic panels designed for equipment applications mount directly to machine cab structures, maintaining functionality under impact conditions up to 51mph. Solar charging systems require specialized charge controllers that regulate current flow from photovoltaic arrays, optimizing charge efficiency while preventing battery damage from uncontrolled charging. Connected fleet operations utilizing solar charging report 23% improved financial performance compared to conventional charging approaches.

Real-Time Battery Monitoring Systems

Real-time monitoring technology represents a significant advancement in equipment battery management. Data acquisition systems continuously measure voltage, current flow, and cell temperature—the primary parameters determining battery service life. IoT-enabled monitoring platforms store operational data locally and transmit information to cloud-based servers for analysis and predictive maintenance scheduling. Mobile applications provide immediate access to battery status information, enabling proactive maintenance decisions and enhancing operational safety through predictive failure detection. Standardized monitoring approaches facilitate rapid deployment across multiple equipment sites while reducing the frequency of manual maintenance inspections.

Conclusion

Heavy equipment battery management directly impacts operational efficiency and cost control across fleet operations. The strategies presented in this guide demonstrate proven methods for doubling battery lifespan while eliminating expensive downtime incidents. Operational practices—controlled cranking protocols, auxiliary load management during idle periods, and continuous voltage monitoring—establish the foundation for extended battery performance.

Battery chemistry selection matched to specific equipment requirements determines long-term operational outcomes. Flooded lead-acid batteries provide cost-effective solutions for standard applications, while AGM and lithium-ion chemistries deliver superior performance under extreme operating conditions despite higher initial capital requirements.

Smart maintenance technologies have fundamentally changed power system management approaches. Intelligent battery maintainers, solar charging capabilities for remote installations, and IoT-enabled monitoring platforms provide real-time visibility into battery health parameters. These systems enable predictive maintenance strategies that prevent failures before they occur, eliminating costly no-start incidents.

The economic impact remains significant—a single battery failure costs between $900-$1,700 in lost productivity, excluding contract penalties and reputation consequences. Comprehensive battery management practices represent high-return maintenance investments for equipment managers seeking operational optimization.

Custom battery solutions tailored to specific operational profiles continue gaining importance as equipment electrification advances. Partnerships with experienced battery manufacturers who understand operational demands will prove essential for optimizing power system performance. Properly specified and maintained battery systems determine whether equipment delivers profitable uptime or remains idle, consuming resources without generating productivity.

For any heavy equipment battery request, you can contact Large Power, a leading custom battery pack manufacturer.

Key Takeaways

Proper battery management can dramatically reduce operational costs and prevent the $900-$1,700 expense of each no-start incident while doubling equipment battery lifespan.

• Avoid over-cranking during startups– Limit cranking attempts to 5-10 seconds with cooling periods to prevent heat buildup and premature battery failure.
• Turn off auxiliary loads when idle– Power cab electronics and accessories separately from starter batteries to eliminate unnecessary deep discharge cycles.
• Choose the right battery chemistry– AGM batteries offer 3-10 times longer cycle life than flooded batteries, offsetting higher costs through reduced maintenance.
• Implement smart charging systems– Use intelligent maintainers and IoT monitoring to prevent overcharging while tracking voltage, current, and temperature in real-time.
• Monitor battery voltage continuously– Install onboard systems that provide early failure warnings and perform automatic starting system tests with each engine start.

These proven strategies transform battery management from reactive maintenance to proactive fleet optimization, ensuring maximum uptime while minimizing replacement costs across your heavy equipment operations.

FAQs

Q1. How can I extend the life of my heavy equipment battery? To extend your heavy equipment battery life, avoid over-cranking during startups, turn off auxiliary loads when idle, and use smart charging systems. Regular maintenance, proper storage, and monitoring battery voltage are also crucial for maximizing lifespan.

Q2. What type of battery is best for heavy equipment? The best battery type depends on your specific equipment needs. AGM batteries offer longer cycle life and reduced maintenance compared to flooded lead-acid batteries, making them suitable for many heavy equipment applications. However, lithium-ion batteries provide the longest lifespan and best performance in high-demand situations.

Q3. How often should heavy equipment batteries be replaced? With proper care and maintenance, heavy equipment batteries can last several years. However, the exact replacement frequency depends on usage patterns, environmental conditions, and battery type. Regular monitoring and maintenance can help you identify when a battery is nearing the end of its useful life.

Q4. What are the benefits of using a smart battery maintainer for heavy equipment? Smart battery maintainers provide consistent, low-power charging that prevents overcharging and compensates for natural energy loss during storage. They can significantly extend battery life, especially for equipment with irregular usage patterns, and help prevent costly no-start situations.

Q5. How do solar charging options benefit heavy equipment batteries in remote locations? Solar charging solutions are ideal for remote worksites without reliable power infrastructure. They can be mounted directly on equipment, provide continuous charging to prevent battery depletion, and help eliminate downtime due to dead batteries. This technology is particularly useful for construction and mining operations in isolated areas.

HVAC Component refers to various key components that make up the Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning system. In battery systems (such as electric vehicle battery packs, battery energy storage cabinets, and factory-level energy storage stations), HVAC components are used to control the internal temperature and air flow, ensuring that the batteries operate safely, stably, and within the optimal temperature range.
The key role in the battery system:
Thermal management: Prevents thermal runaway and extends battery life

Temperature equalization: Maintains consistent temperature within the entire battery module or battery pack

Vehicle comfort (for EVs): Can also serve the cabin air conditioning system

Energy storage cabinet system: Prevents capacity attenuation caused by high temperature, ensuring stable power supply to the system

A hybrid vehicle (mixed-power vehicle) refers to a vehicle driven by two or more power sources, usually combining an internal combustion engine (such as gasoline or diesel engine) with an electric motor (battery-powered). This type of vehicle switches orcooperate uses two power systems intelligently to optimize fuel economy, reduce emissions, and enhance driving performance.
Key Components:
Battery System: Stores energy (usually lithium-ion batteries)
Motor/Generator Set: Provides auxiliary driving force or energy recovery
Energy Management System (EMS): Real-time scheduling of electric/oil system operating modes
Brake Energy Recovery System: Recovers kinetic energy through deceleration to charge the battery
Transmission System: Coordinates the output of the internal combustion engine and the electric motor

In the field of batteries, hysteresis usually refers to the phenomenon where the voltage-capacity (V-Q) curve during charging and discharging does not coincide. Even when the battery is at the same state of charge (SOC), the voltages during charging and discharging are different, and this path dependence exhibits a ‘hysteresis’ characteristic.
Performance in batteries: During the charging process, the voltage of the battery is usually higher than the discharge voltage at the same SOC. On the voltage-capacity graph, it forms a **’figure-eight’**, which is a hysteresis loop. The size of the hysteresis varies with factors such as temperature, aging degree, and current rate.

Inverter-Based Resources (IBR) refer to power source resources that are connected to the power grid through power electronic inverters and supply power to it. These resources do not directly generate alternating current (AC), but convert the internally generated direct current (DC) or variable frequency current into alternating current (AC) at the standard grid frequency (such as 50 Hz or 60 Hz) and operate in grid connection through inverters.
Technical Features:
Not dependent on rotating mechanical inertia: Unlike traditional synchronous generators, IBR does not have inherent rotational mass.

Grid interface is an inverter: All control (voltage, current, frequency response) is realized by software and controllers.

Fast response and programmable: Suitable for flexible scheduling and participating in grid auxiliary services.

Lack of inertia support: In high proportion IBR grids, system frequency stability faces challenges.

An imbalanced battery cell refers to the situation where different cells within a battery module or pack have differences in key parameters such as voltage, capacity, or internal resistance, leading to their inability to charge and discharge synchronously or achieve consistent performance.
The hazards of imbalance:
Reducing the available capacity of the system: The entire module is limited by the worst battery cell, and the early saturation or exhaustion limits the overall performance.

Accelerating aging: High-load battery cells or single cells frequently subjected to overcharge/overdischarge age faster, forming a vicious cycle.

Rising safety risks: Unbalanced battery cells may cause thermal runaway, swelling, and even fires, posing safety hazards.

Limited BMS control: Inaccurate SOC/SOH estimation affects the accuracy of battery management system strategies.

Impedance refers to the total resistance encountered by alternating current as it passes through a circuit or device, including the effects of resistance, inductance, and capacitance. Its unit is ohm (Ω), and it is usually used in the field of batteries to describe the internal response ability of batteries to alternating current.
Factors affecting impedance: temperature change (impedance increases when the temperature is low), state of charge (SOC), cyclic aging (SEI film thickening, electrode powdering), structural damage (e.g., collector fluid fracture).

Integrators refer to companies or teams that integrate multiple components (such as battery modules, battery management systems, power electronic devices, control systems, thermal management systems, etc.) into a complete and operational battery energy storage system (BESS) or power battery system.

The core responsibility of system integrators is to integrate technology and optimize the system, ensuring that all components work in high synergy in terms of performance, safety, communication, and operational strategies, thereby meeting the needs of customers or application scenarios (such as grid regulation, peak shaving and valley filling for commercial and industrial use, and electric vehicle driving, etc.).

Intercalation refers to the reversible insertion and extraction of ions (such as Li⁺) into and out of the lattice structure of electrode materials without damaging the basic crystal framework of the material. This process is the core mechanism for most rechargeable batteries (especially lithium-ion batteries) to achieve energy storage and release.

Note: The embedding process is not a chemical reaction, as it does not produce new substances and is primarily a process of physical property changes. If the embedding is too deep or the rate is too fast, it may cause electrode expansion and structural collapse, reducing the cycle life.

Internal resistance refers to the total resistance generated by the battery during its operation, including the hindrance to the transmission of electrons and ions by all components inside the battery. Its unit is ohm (Ω), and it is one of the key parameters that affect battery performance (such as power output, heat generation, and efficiency).
The impact of internal resistance:

Energy efficiency reduction: During the battery discharge process, a portion of the energy is consumed in the form of heat due to internal resistance.

Power output limitation: High internal resistance reduces the maximum output current, limiting the instantaneous power performance.

Increased temperature rise and risk of thermal runaway: The higher the internal resistance, the greater the current, and the more heat generated.

Battery life assessment indicator: Internal resistance increases with cycling and aging and can be used to measure the health status (SOH).

An inverter is a power electronic device that converts direct current (DC) into alternating current (AC). In battery energy storage systems (BESS) and photovoltaic systems, inverters are a key component for grid connection, power supply to loads, and energy scheduling.

In the BESS, the battery energy storage system consists of the DC side (batteries, battery management system) and the AC side (grid/loads), with the inverter acting as a bridge.

Inverter imbalance refers to the phenomenon where the three-phase voltage or current output by the inverter is inconsistent in terms of amplitude, phase, or frequency. This imbalance can lead to a decrease in system efficiency, overheating of equipment, and even grid interference, especially in grid-connected energy storage systems and microgrids, where it is necessary to monitor and control it closely.
Common manifestations include: Unequal amplitude of three-phase output voltage (e.g., Phase A 230 V, Phase B 215 V, Phase C 225 V), uneven current in three phases (caused by uneven load), phase angle deviation leading to the phenomenon of ‘false three-phase’, and harmonic imbalance affecting power factor and power quality.

Ion transport refers to the process of charged ions migrating in the electrolyte or electrode material during the operation of a battery. It is one of the core mechanisms of battery energy conversion, directly affecting the charging and discharging speed, efficiency, thermal management, and cycle life of the battery.
Operation Principle:
In a lithium-ion battery:

During charging: lithium ions are released from the positive electrode, pass through the electrolyte, migrate to the negative electrode, and embed in it;

During discharging: lithium ions are released from the negative electrode and return to the positive electrode;

Throughout the process, electrons flow in the external circuit, while ions flow in the internal circuit (inside the battery), and both work together to complete the energy exchange.